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contents
" w. u$ h, K2 N$ G
+ i5 g* O- s! G O# ?) N; ?- N! C1 Introduction ................................. 1
8 x2 x. }# U; e8 \- \What You Will Learn from This Book ............ 1
; C& B, ~7 b4 U' P+ B3 n+ }Who Will Benefit from This Book ............... 2* ^( f7 h- F4 i4 {, z" P
The General Format of This Book ............... 2+ A* c- b* P* y0 s
Why Measure .......................... 3+ o3 f8 o9 e9 m, [! ~
Obtain or Validate Data ................. 3
8 y" {7 ~" E: D; ^Design, Selection, and Optimization ....... 5) M/ ^# ?( Z- ~
Troubleshooting ........................ 5
. ], ~, B% m+ \2 D4 k5 Q+ ]8 UValidation or Verification ................. 7; L/ l8 ^$ Y5 Q" J# ]7 E! u1 m
Terminology ........................... 7
+ O/ w' x) |/ `' R 2 Measurement Philosophy ..................... 11
* U9 z3 P: \. K6 G& ICause No Damage ............................ 11
7 G9 ]% c% `; n6 z. r) xMeasure without Influencing the Measurement ... 11
5 F9 o7 K I0 y `& l+ ~! |( SValidate the Test Setup and 2 f( q$ {4 n$ ?3 |) l
Measurement Limits ........................ 12
# ~* b% i1 b# }# J, T HMeasure in the Most Efficient and Direct Way .... 14
" t8 R6 u1 E% Q' ^- oNoninvasive versus Invasive
- O. R9 g8 @8 y! nMeasurement ........................ 14
( C; v! D5 [" IIn situ Measurement .................... 14
8 V' ~# x4 w7 m5 x( fIndirect versus Direct Measurement ....... 14
5 ?1 z6 X- Z% G O" V! v( u7 Q6 wDocument Measurements Thoroughly ........... 15
" n' O8 p4 k* Q9 q, VThe Test Engineer and Contact
. U1 e# C8 d* n! d" \( _/ C0 xInformation .......................... 15
0 V# E" M6 K! YThe Purpose of the Test .................. 16' x. g; t: L! J' K7 G* w) G
Simulated or Expected Results if * a% K- H- \ W5 j0 [- W5 q' D* k
Available ............................ 17
& b2 i# i( T& S6 l; jThe Date and Physical Location
& _% I3 v: B- ~0 S" lof the Testing ........................ 18- X7 w8 U+ b8 a9 F9 e
Operational Test Environment - H# y& l' @" m' d
and Conditions ....................... 18
, f+ @, ?; O5 H7 G2 {+ A3 fThe Model of Each Piece of Test Equipment 3 m9 f, f* U) d" E1 I
(Including Probes) and Verification That 0 Y* y1 S$ o$ ?/ d* B2 y% E% v
They Are Calibrated .................. 18
; ?! L8 n2 x; K! rSetup Diagram and/or Picture ............ 19" L$ Q+ i# B9 X" x$ S
Measurement Annotations and ! @ ]) b" C0 J! N, P
Comments .......................... 20
2 r* u% _8 d+ ]* M/ x5 n$ dAny Observed Anomalies ............... 20
% O- L5 I' O- `; a% e4 z4 X/ a# q- B- A5 f, B/ n, [
3 Measurement Fundamentals ................... 21
l/ |( t1 k1 E; OSensitivity ................................... 21
! y8 J3 {+ B1 e% l: n% |; fNoise Floor .................................. 22: f* l% c' |' o& W, p3 P
Dynamic Range .............................. 22
3 u- C8 k/ f# K$ z' `Noise Density ................................ 27
) t( T) H& o' aSignal Averaging ............................. 31
6 y0 B, s7 `" ^, Q0 D& C% CScaling ...................................... 33( y: [! @- x$ S" e5 [
Attenuators .................................. 34
* X! v9 T/ Q5 w' LPreamplifiers ................................. 352 |% S. K$ [: C# m
Linear versus Log Display ............... 36
2 }" H& I. A. C6 N6 [+ TMeasurement Domains ........................ 38
" H, b; a7 x6 o8 ?Frequency Domain ...................... 38$ b$ h9 R4 S: l
Gain and Phase ......................... 38( W$ J& o1 @$ y
S-Parameters ........................... 385 j/ @3 ]( Y) R; Y9 I6 O
Impedance ............................. 39
* L7 X# S5 P. B1 pTime Domain ........................... 405 O8 K4 N3 U5 C
Spectrum Domain ....................... 423 A& ]& j8 O2 c3 R& u5 x: ?
Comparing Domains .................... 44
1 C$ s( i# K3 Y# yEndnotes .................................... 46
. T, |+ M) r3 z5 d 4 Test Instruments ............................. 47: c& `( F0 G4 g6 Y. k j S/ P3 g
Frequency Response Analyzers and Vector / y) n' t5 t% E6 {' |! @
Network Analyzers ......................... 47
) C* m, {, `; c6 h& m& NOMICRON Lab Bode 100 ................ 49; D8 K* P: i# |% v6 l4 U" T9 x
Agilent Technologies E5061B ............. 50
6 d! v) t7 e, kOscilloscopes ................................. 509 t+ q/ L1 v, I
Teledyne Lecroy Waverunner 6Zi ......... 51
5 f* H; m# b) R* v" R& E; y5 mRohde & Schwarz RTO1044 .............. 52
! A. M9 M$ s: @& R# G6 FTektronix DPO7000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
6 ^9 ]9 o9 U( j, t" t. VTektronix DPO72004B ................... 54% }) j9 ], M6 \! R9 s0 G$ K
Teledyne Lecroy Wavemaster 8Zi ......... 55
% z6 Q, x% S6 ZTektronix MSO5204 ..................... 562 ^; R! F8 s: F9 Q9 n/ Y
Teledyne Lecroy HDO6104 ............... 56$ l; k9 d" B! m8 ~4 r( X+ A
Tektronix MDO4104-6 ................... 58
% Y6 N' ^! }& C& W; rOMICRON Lab ISAQ 100 ................ 59
6 u6 R) ?' r, {* A8 Q6 U3 wSpectrum Analyzers ........................... 59
& `: n$ V" C H! u: GTektronix RSA5106A .................... 59; y$ E3 C" `7 j1 S
Agilent Technologies N9020A ............. 60
; e" Q6 _5 G9 W9 n" [' e/ k. LAgilent Technologies E5052B ............. 61
% l! N3 v' w }2 \2 [/ OSignal Generators ............................. 62
" H: o2 m0 f9 \0 V& G @% uAgilent Technologies E8257D ............. 62
! @+ B& B" W% j: N" F sTDR/TDT S-Parameter Analyzers ............... 63
; G+ @4 t. E) {: @0 F7 n8 }Picotest G5100A ........................ 63 k' o" o$ ?6 o4 `8 d! [) a. y
8 L8 A# Y+ Q* u/ R0 @; |& OTektronix DSA8300/E8010E .............. 63
. E6 `! I8 g0 o1 h! H6 jTeledyne Lecroy SPARQ 4012E ........... 65
. r$ g6 b/ h: E- A) TAgilent Technologies E5071C ............. 66* |% A3 d# E4 [1 A! d/ ]8 V6 g
5 Probes, Injectors, and Interconnects ............ 69
) w, \9 x ~+ \, h& XVoltage Probes ................................ 69, q* [# s1 o$ I3 ]- x0 ?$ ]/ V
Probe Circuit Interaction ................. 70; Q1 E% c, O0 F+ y
Flattening the Probe Response ............ 72
, d9 J$ m6 W |$ wConfirming Measurements ............... 74
z2 x7 |( W: ^$ a( A ASelecting a Voltage Probe ................. 75
1 g* Z0 N4 A0 h+ MPassive Probes .......................... 771 A; l0 q6 c0 P! O
Active Probes .......................... 79. a' c1 z ]" C$ N a& r9 W! c
Differential Probes ...................... 79
, f9 e5 S' H5 g5 w( sSpecialty Probes ........................ 80
# ~* o9 g8 U! v1 i9 BOther Connections ...................... 91
: R8 [% y5 v! k0 ]8 y! G1 G3 a1 D- _Endnotes .................................... 91% w; T7 V: S {8 l8 I8 k% q& m
6 The Distributed System ....................... 93
; ?0 \8 \# i9 S% \- s( ~Noise Paths within a Voltage Regulator .......... 93" d- B2 i* \ u- o, F5 j
Internal Noise .......................... 95
$ r* B5 I! V7 ^4 xPower Supply Rejection Ratio (PSRR) ...... 950 f" d1 f [! \8 M7 ?: B; v" T
Output Impedance ...................... 99% ^ K* C0 |' ~, o- U" n0 {
Reverse Transfer and Crosstalk ........... 992 ]. K* I0 w/ P
Control Loop Stability ......................... 1016 V8 ]7 X9 H$ m- m; x m5 e
Impact on Output Impedance ............ 101
+ x& s6 f" f+ ^( hImpact on Noise ........................ 1029 C) @" B3 A8 x9 I0 ?& x8 R0 y
Impact on PSRR ........................ 102
( i5 ]$ Z3 U3 m) P' jImpact on Reverse Transfer ............... 103
' Q( R; ^- p% M+ V, B8 h0 @How Poor Stability Propagates through
- r9 K1 v: [. L/ ^& ~the System ................................. 103
' Z) s# e" P) B1 k4 oAdding the PDNs ....................... 106
2 n4 Y) Y; V. p3 R5 AEndnotes .................................... 108
7 Z7 [' E/ A9 L 7 Measuring Impedance ........................ 109+ ~6 [: U: T- t- D8 H; v
Selecting a Measurement Method ............... 109
0 a( [% } r( NSingle-Port Measurements ............... 109" \/ w a2 k6 j5 ^% ?& G
Two-Port Measurements ................. 1234 p7 e7 F8 f) C) u" q$ ]
Current Injection Measurements .......... 139+ J% m' ?+ N" M9 ~
Impedance Adapters .................... 142
+ A/ U+ ^; ^6 u; O# QEndnotes .................................... 148
0 {* i3 ~& }' O" m" g 8 Measuring Stability .......................... 151
7 O) g! w* u; d. b' A# NStability and Why It Matters .................... 1518 Y' C5 k8 d" V w# k% K6 H3 a
Control Loop Basics ..................... 151
8 e; ?5 s d% ^6 ?9 q' f. oGain Margin, Phase Margin, Delay
2 V1 ?) ~- S6 w8 i0 b" U: |Margin, and Stability Margin ........... 153 u; N7 A. l' A( Q! A5 m, P- Y
Bode Plots and Nyquist Charts ........... 154
! l u6 ^3 x' }$ Q4 y2 T8 Rx
' S1 \6 Q. a: w: F$ G Contents6 J% M8 ]/ H8 F
Open-Loop Measurement ................ 1592 M! L/ w6 K/ S* l6 i& _
Injection Devices ........................ 161( F% I( Z( D$ M6 j& i
Small Signal versus Large Signal .......... 1648 D, K2 X$ M, e( p
Closed-Loop Measurement ............... 169# W; o [$ \: t/ u
ON and OFF Measurements .............. 170
: N7 u& o" I# N# b% UForward Measurements .................. 171
( x w$ S8 r' o S2 I2 uMinor Loop Gain ....................... 171
1 j& D! z: q$ E5 a* F3 d* A1 \Noninvasive Closed-Loop Measurement ... 174; a1 I3 k: L( U5 ?' a! N
Endnotes .................................... 1794 }. e, C; [" S- k$ M" W
' I2 T& G, ]) B5 P* [( o2 a9 Measuring PSRR ............................. 181: g' O5 H$ {, \
Measurement Methods ........................ 182
/ e ?. p7 m/ nIn-Circuit or Out-of-Circuit ............... 182- }& _# p3 l6 m# @1 C
Direct or Indirect Measurement ........... 182
8 a9 B2 q2 S! R T9 BModulating the Input ......................... 183* [( l' ?/ h" e' U+ R+ r
Line Injector ............................ 184. x: p7 @: T, U# T/ E3 |! I2 q. o8 D/ N
Current Injector ......................... 188
6 k/ r0 u. Y2 r/ k) {: }* ^/ RDC Amplifier ........................... 189- a* @; D" I; r' B! e# f
Choosing the Measurement Domain ............. 189
. E: u- L' u$ r1 ^. gVNA .................................. 189+ F% V3 h2 S. Y& H
Spectrum Analyzer ...................... 189
2 |) d* M4 V: i6 [/ P) `4 eOscilloscope ............................ 1904 D. r {! v- u) e
Probes and Sensitivity ................... 190- J+ S) Y% d. s% E9 u; C
Endnotes .................................... 200
% I, d. V# ~ {1 d: H9 G6 N 10 Reverse Transfer and Crosstalk ................ 2012 \" U8 R# O5 e6 ~
Reverse Transfer of Various Topologies .......... 2013 ^7 r, N% v2 F
Series Linear Regulators ................. 201) j4 d! }5 Y2 K9 ~3 E8 I5 u ~
Shunt Regulators ....................... 201/ y5 D. t5 }+ p9 w' e
POL Regulators ......................... 203$ S8 x7 G/ Z) p; y7 j9 y
Operational Amplifiers .................. 204
' G# H% \/ t7 {4 |) w& i1 YModulating the Output Current ................ 204
8 H! `5 k2 l8 }( [$ c* u$ I; |" |Current Injector ......................... 205
5 k1 R3 M# n. lDC Bias Injector ........................ 205
1 m Y; `0 W# ]/ U9 q' {Measuring the Input Current ................... 2057 W! L) o" `# H
Calibrating the Measurement ............. 205
9 d% {! J' @/ r! OMeasuring the Input Voltage ................... 207/ W4 u; _8 t: [$ m
Calibrating the Measurement ............. 209
* a5 o" U* ]& i4 L* o4 O. tIndirect Measurement ......................... 209
' w: k1 V- M/ MEndnotes .................................... 216
* j5 y- A; _) y! N 11 Measuring Step Load Response ................ 217
$ ?4 t1 B4 ]6 b0 uGenerating the Transient ....................... 217
?0 }; a; h( QCurrent Injector versus Electronic Load .... 217$ F* q5 e( u% R3 l, C/ n4 ?
Slew Rate .............................. 219' U4 u @) [) |3 r/ t3 K
Current Modulation Waveform ........... 221
" L. b* m# V. m+ X/ q Contents . s) p" @' g' _8 O
xi* ]* R( h4 U( r! s& q2 u: t: s- h
Measuring the Response(s) ..................... 223
; W: Y W7 j, q' N, D9 b2 W+ JLarge Signal versus Small Signal .......... 223& u/ ]6 x- a# O
Notes about Averaging .................. 224
5 @" N' F; O5 \Sample Rate and Time Scale .............. 226* _9 _, ?6 a' c, U: h9 t
Endnotes .................................... 232* l5 ]! Y7 [( G5 M+ c G( ?
12 Measuring Ripple and Noise .................. 233
& b7 }# g( a+ r2 t! O) oSelecting a Measurement Method ............... 234
# \! W2 S5 h) A1 fIn or Out of System ..................... 234. f( s- A( t+ C1 e
Direct or Indirect ....................... 234
% Q" U4 @, X% y& {' V2 Q$ lTime or Spectral Domain ................. 234
+ O2 L. r! T6 _- a, O5 aConnecting the Equipment ..................... 235
" ]; G, E7 Y# c) Q& T5 tPassive Scope Probes .................... 235/ a& y) O& z |- c& I) @6 x, `
Active Scope Probes ..................... 236
9 r3 {- o- H. U& P: G8 {Direct 50-W Terminated Connection ....... 236
/ \5 W, |9 M5 z% I7 _/ b4 B9 QChoosing the Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
$ V% t% L3 G7 TAveraging and Filtering ....................... 252
$ _9 K# L; u9 u4 f: o9 {Endnotes .................................... 252
7 H, [: H8 h. ?3 [ 13 Measuring Edges ............................. 253
# A) y; Y) a" I; k6 y! D, hRelating Bandwidth and Rise Time .............. 253& N* J# S( t1 V" h
Cascading Rise Times ................... 256( u! @$ a5 k! i, Q3 N
Impact of Filters and Bandwidth ' M5 C) E- v% f3 D) j6 {( X( T3 w& {3 t
Limiting ............................. 257
3 b6 L5 |) C% i4 ]Sampling Rate and Interleaved Sampling ........ 261) N- {3 i$ V4 a
Interpolation ................................. 2641 w, P- x& x( u1 J
Coaxial Cables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
1 T* O2 a- W% y2 d' `1 b% `2 W* hEffects of High-Frequency Losses ......... 265# _8 U3 o4 K! W. ~' {* r
The Criticality of the Probe Connection .......... 267# l! C9 ^4 i- J* g9 x4 I% W- b$ B
Printed Circuit Board Issues ................... 2691 p3 r0 z9 w! H7 j
Probes ....................................... 269
@$ b1 J6 k+ U3 mEndnotes .................................... 273
. a' `) @/ Z( e: X1 b 14 Troubleshooting with Near-Field Probes ........ 275; _3 i8 I: e) F9 ~; [' i
The Basics of Emissions ........................ 275
3 A( w% V7 }( F$ h8 N$ L" C' I& Z- rThe Near-Field Probes ......................... 277
: f, m. b% B- o. i- s/ ~Probe and Orientation ......................... 278
- |; ^+ k4 J( u8 N" S3 n4 U* |The Measurement Instrument .................. 281: r! Y2 [* O5 Y* l
Spectrum Gating .............................. 281
4 H Q# a* R: AEndnotes .................................... 295
4 Z- f$ @# n+ L( v* r; h: w; o 15 High-Frequency Impedance Measurement ...... 297
0 N, t# D& u3 k. h/ XTime Domain ................................. 297
- F" D. W o1 T4 MTime Domain Reflectometry .............. 298- L: ~! R& J# L2 M8 K* \0 m1 J& b
Calibration ................................... 299
# {# `5 M( [, q4 rReference Plane ............................... 300
( N2 B# c$ v" n! W3 C+ s) D7 Rxii
A: t# k$ p' c/ _7 { Contents6 Y/ N: I) \; [( @' A
Setting TDR Pulse Rise Time ................... 3032 @, g- @6 U( T- P3 t r, _$ @
Interpreting TDR Measurements ................ 304
! Y0 u: p8 B- T; h1 N. d5 qEstimating Inductance and Capacitance .......... 307
$ `, H- w# B$ x4 i3 F' BS-Parameter Measurements .................... 314
+ l: Y- y3 b9 J; C HEndnotes .................................... 316
/ `6 J; L9 i' w) p Index ....................................... 319 |
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